The Mongol Empire: The Unstoppable Force that Ultimately Crumbled

The British had their Navy, the Romans had their Legions, and Napoleon had his Grand Armée. But none of these forces could match what the Mongols could do on horseback. Genghis Khan and his descendants conquered much of the Asian landmass, ruling over history’s largest contiguous land empire.

Though one of the most fearsome forces known to humankind—laying waste to countless empires that stood in its way—the Mongol Empire also spurred innovations in administration, religious tolerance, and the arts that proved to be revolutionary.

From the humble beginnings of a nomadic tribe to rulers of millions, the story of the Mongol Empire is a fascinating tale of ambition, warfare, and destiny.

A New Ruler

The Mongols in the 12th century were a scattering of nomadic tribes spread across the vast, treeless grassland plains of Mongolia known as the steppe. Each of these tribes was ruled by a khan who often had quarrels with opposing tribal leaders. This often made the political landscape as harsh as the land they inhabited.

In 1162, though, a boy named Temujin was born who would rise to the top of the unforgiving arena of tribal politics and change the way that Mongol society—and the world—worked. When Temujin was still young, his father, the chieftain of their clan, was poisoned by a tribe they were at war with. Since his tribe would only follow a strong male leader, they deemed his son, Temujin, too weak to lead. Instead, they fell in behind a long-time rival of his late father and abandoned Temujin and his family.

His mother had to remarry just to survive. Raised by his mother and stepfather, Temujin’s childhood was one of poverty and hardship. It surely didn’t show any signs of future greatness.

As he grew older, Temujin managed to work his way into positions of power. Sources tell of his ability to win over loyal followers just by the sheer force of his personality. He made strategic alliances with khans to strengthen his standing among the tribes. These alliances would eventually allow him command over a sizeable force.

A rising leader, he used new strategies to cement his hold on power. He promoted the soldiers in his army based on merit, unlike other Mongol commanders. He divided the spoils of his conquests equally among his soldiers. One of his more ingenious moves was to divide the people he conquered and spread them across his forces to prevent them from banding together against him.

Temujin won many power struggles, demolished the Mongol nobility, bested all of his opponents, and united the previously disparate tribes of the Steppe to form the first ever united Mongolia. In 1206, a council elected him the leader of this new nation. Temujin was known as the “Universal Ruler” of the Mongols.

He had become Genghis Khan.

The Mongols Under Genghis Khan

Conquest

The story could have ended there. Genghis Khan, now the ruler of a united Mongolia, could have stayed put on the steppe and worried about governing his new nation. But the new khan was only getting started.

The Mongol conquest began for a few reasons. First, the year 1206 saw lower temperatures than normal which led to a decrease in grass growing on the Steppe. With no sustenance for the horses and other animals their economy depended on, the Mongols were forced to search elsewhere.

Second, nervous about the newly united nomadic tribes on their border, Mongolia’s neighbors, namely China, cut off trade. The Mongols, surrounded by the barren steppe, would have to find another way to acquire the goods they needed.

Third, and most importantly, Genghis Khan believed he had a mission from the gods. He believed that the sky god, Tengeri, who ruled above all else, had tasked him with uniting the entire world under one sword.

If any army were to do it, it would be Genghis Khan’s newly united forces. Their first conquest was the invasion of the Northern Jin dynasty in China. The Mongols took large swathes of Chinese land and forced the Jin emperor to move his capital further south.

Around the same time, Genghis Khan sent envoys to Central Asia. The shah who ruled there had the envoys killed for even talking of challenging his power. In response, Genghis turned the might of his army against the shah and toppled his regime.

Over the next twenty years, Mongol forces would push farther south into China and west into the Middle East. During the campaigns under Genghis Khan, they would conquer more land in two decades than the Romans did in 400 years. To understand how they built such a vast empire, we need to examine the Mongolian forces in more detail.

Battle Tactics

The Mongols were warriors by nature. Growing up on the steppe, Mongolians had been hardened by its unforgiving habitat. The men were trained in cavalry and hand-to-hand combat from a young age. Battle accounts claim that Mongolian cavalry could lean almost completely sideways on their horse, keep a firm grip with their legs, and get off accurate shots with a bow.

Horses played a pivotal role in the Mongols’ strategy. They were constantly on the move, outpacing the enemy, and making for impossible targets. Genghis Khan’s battle repertoire was highly dependent on surprise attacks. One of his go-to’s was the “feigned withdrawal,” in which Mongolian forces would seem to flee from the enemy, drawing them close, then turning in an instant and surrounding them with cavalry. You can imagine what happened from there.

These merciless tactics offered the Mongols an edge over armies that seemed to have every other advantage. Mongol forces were often outnumbered and the soldiers they clashed with were often bigger, stronger, and better equipped. But traditional advantages hardly mattered when staring down the Mongol horde.

The End of an Era

No matter how fearsome a conqueror he was, though, Genghis Khan was still human. During a campaign in 1227, the great khan met his end. Riding back from a campaign in either Persia or Jin China—sources differ on this point—Genghis Khan died. His forces went to great lengths to hide his burial site, leaving us clueless where his body is today.

Because of this, we know next to nothing about how he died. Some legends claim he was struck down by lightning or by a vengeful lover. Other sources say he succumbed to wounds from battle or even to the Bubonic Plague. Either way, the reign of the Universal Ruler was at an end.

Succession, Consolidation, and Expansion

Genghis Khan’s legacy was carried on by his descendants, often referred to as the “Golden Lineage.” His son, Ogedei, assumed control of the throne after his father’s death, keeping Mongol power consolidated in one person.

Under Ogedei, the territorial expansion of the Mongols reached its peak. They continued their incursion into the Jin Dynasty, this time bringing the emperor to his knees and forcing his people to submit to Mongol rule. Mongol forces spread further into the Islamic west, conquering the Khwarezmian Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate in Persia. In Russia, many principalities fell victim to invasion. And in Eastern Europe, Poland, Hungary, and surrounding territories came under Mongol control.

The Mongolian Army was on the verge of sweeping across the rest of Europe and had Christendom trembling at the knees. In 1241, though, Ogedei died after an all-night drinking bender, forcing the Mongolian horde to return home to deal with their khan’s death and the ensuing power struggle.

At the time of Ogedei’s death, the Mongolian Empire stretched from the Sea of Japan to the Mediterranean, and from Siberia to Southern China. However, after the death of Ogedei, the Mongols were without a ruler.

Fragmentation

With no clear decree on who would assume power, Genghis Khan’s grandsons waged war against each other. For nearly 20 years, they fought for control of the empire. By 1260, the once-united Mongols were split into four.

In Persia, the Ilkhanate reigned supreme. They overthrew what was left of the Abbasid Caliphate and occupied Baghdad, then the crown jewel of the Arab world.

The Chagatai Khanate ruled in Central Asia. Though not directly related to Genghis Khan, Timur carried on the Mongol legacy and established the Timurid Dynasty. Timur’s descendants would later establish the Mughal Empire in India, ruling over the subcontinent for centuries after.

Russia and Eastern Europe came under the control of the Golden Horde. This dynasty lasted for centuries until overthrown by a trading post called Muscovy. Muscovy would establish the Russian Empire under the tsars, which ruled for three hundred years until it was overthrown and replaced by the Soviet Union.

The most well-known descendant of the Mongol Empire, though, is the Yuan Dynasty in China.

The Mongol Dynasty in China

Conquest

Born in 1215, during the reign of his grandfather, Kublai Khan grew up appreciating Confucian thought. Seen by many historians as the greatest successor of Genghis Khan, Kublai rose to power in 1260 after his brother, the original inheritor of power in Mongol China, died.

Though the Jin Dynasty in China had been toppled, the Song Dynasty in the south still stood. In 1279, though, Kublai Khan brought the Mongol offensive against the remnants of the southern Chinese to a definitive and victorious end. In doing so, he completed the conquest of China his grandfather started nearly 70 years before and united all of China under Mongol rule. The empire he built came to be known as the Yuan Dynasty.

Though Kublai Khan had united all of China for the first time in over three hundred years, that success did not put an end to his military ambitions. The Mongol army toppled the Dali and Cham Kingdoms in present-day southern China and Vietnam, respectively.

Though they had early successes as they pushed farther into Southeast Asia, the Mongols were eventually stopped and forced to retreat by the hot weather and diseases of the region.

Kublai Khan also attempted to invade Japan twice. He built up massive fleets for the campaigns, using some of the biggest ships of the time. However, his army was turned back both times. Two storms, which the Japanese people subsequently called “kamikaze” or “divine wind,” laid waste to his fleets.

It seemed only forces of nature could stop the Mongols in battle.

Governance

Kublai’s reign would last over 30 years and is seen as a golden age of science and culture. His power extended over all of China, Mongolia, Tibet, and even into the Korean Peninsula. He built his new capital in two parts, one in Xanadu, a city that became known for its wealth and luxury, and the other in Beijing.

The Yuan Dynasty would produce such cultural achievements as the development of the novel, landscape art, and the distinctive blue and white pottery still prominent in China today. The invention of movable type printing allowed for works on medicine and agriculture to be spread across the empire.

Though Mongol rule over China left an indelible mark on the country, the opposite also proved true. As one of Kublai’s Chinese advisors told him, “One can conquer China on horseback, but one cannot rule it from horseback.” This meant that the Mongols would have to adapt to Chinese ways to rule successfully there. However, tribal traditions softened with the adoption of Confucian values.

For example, the Yuan Dynasty used Chinese methods like the civil service examination to organize the government compared with the familial inheritance that usually characterized Mongolian administration.

However, the social hierarchy still placed Mongol elites at the top of society and the Chinese peasantry at the bottom. Kublai Khan also allowed many foreigners to assume positions in his government, the most notable of which being the famous Venetian traveler, Marco Polo.

Decline

As the various Mongol dominions spread their power over a growing number of peoples, cultures, and political systems, it became harder for these once-nomadic tribes to hold on to the traditional values that had led them to such success. The sedentary cultures they conquered made the Mongols into more sedentary people.

Mongol administrators were faced with the dilemma of sticking to tribal ways that did not serve well in imperial governance or adapt to the societal and political standards of the conquered people, but lose their identity in the process.

Fall in China

Economic woes plagued the Yuan Dynasty. Inflation, currency devaluation, and economic mismanagement led to the crumbling of their influence and power. Add corruption and government favoritism to the mix and you get an empire ready to topple.

The greed with which the Mongols gathered wealth during conquests did not translate well to everyday administration.

Rumblings of discontent in Mongol-controlled China began from the lower classes. Uprisings erupted among the peasantry and ethnic minority groups. Eventually, in 1368, a revolt, led by the Red Turbans—a religious movement led by a monk—overthrew the Yuan Dynasty and began the reign of the Ming Dynasty.

Though other dominions of the Mongol Empire outlasted the Yuan Dynasty, the fall of the Yuan is seen as the beginning of the end. Mongol power in the regions it once dominated was irreparably damaged.

Legacy and Impact of the Mongol Empire

The Mongol Empire’s legacy was a far-reaching one whose effects can still be felt today. At its height, the empire facilitated cultural, economic, and technological exchange along the Silk Road, a network of trade routes that linked China and Europe.

Commodities from across the land were combined to create luxurious goods that attested to the empire’s vastness and opulence. For example, skilled artisans from Baghdad wove gold brocade, using Chinese silk and Tibetan gold. These exquisite fabrics adorned the Mongol elites’ housing, clothes, and horses, giving them an air of grandeur and sophistication.

One of the most remarkable aspects of the empire was its support for merchants and artisans, even if they were forcibly relocated across the empire. The Mongols recognized the importance of trade and commerce and facilitated it by establishing a code of law that provided general rules and punishments throughout the empire. This helped to promote order and stability, which allowed for the flourishing of economic activity.

Mongol leadership fostered religious tolerance, allowing people to practice their own faith without fear of persecution. This promoted cultural exchange and the spread of ideas, as people from different parts of the empire interacted and shared their beliefs and practices.

Perhaps most significantly, the Mongols were responsible for the spread of many Chinese inventions to the West. Gunpowder, paper, printing, and compasses all made their way to Europe thanks to the Mongols’ trading networks. These inventions transformed the world, ushering in a new era of scientific and technological progress.

Key Takeaways

• The Mongol Empire, led by Genghis Khan, conquered vast territories through superior horsemanship and tactical innovation.
• Genghis Khan’s strategic alliances and merit-based promotions unified Mongol tribes and expanded his military power.
• The Mongol Empire facilitated cultural, economic, and technological exchanges along the Silk Road, spreading inventions like gunpowder and printing to the West.
• Under Kublai Khan, the Yuan Dynasty in China saw advancements in arts and governance, but economic mismanagement and corruption led to its downfall.
• The Mongol Empire’s legacy includes fostering religious tolerance and promoting trade, which had lasting impacts on global cultural exchange.

Sources

• Original MegaProjects video: The Mongol Empire: The Unstoppable Force that Ultimately Crumbled
• https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/347e310a43df4cce8268f3019e5e63da
• https://www.britannica.com/place/Mongol-empire
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_Empire
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wUVvTqvjUaM&t=1s&ab_channel=TED-Ed
• https://www.britannica.com/summary/Mongol-Empire-Timeline
• https://www.historyhit.com/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-mongol-empire/
• https://www.britannica.com/summary/Decline-of-the-Mongol-Empire
• http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols/conquests/conquests_4.htm#:~:text=The%20result%20of%20these%20difficulties,on%20The%20Mongols%20in%20China%5D
• http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols/conquests/conquests_4.htm#:~:text=The%20result%20of%20these%20difficulties,on%20The%20Mongols%20in%20China%5D
• https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Journals/Military-Review/Directors-Select-Articles/Genghis-Khan/#:~:text=The%20largest%20force%20Genghis%20Khan,Europe%20never%20exceeded%20150%2C000%20men
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ogodei
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kublai-Khan
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yuan-dynasty
• https://smartplayer.captionsync.com/play.php?vid=1596043180ehenderson_add735c9643c#:~:text=After%20his%20father’s%20death%2C%20the,of%20the%20Steppes%20by%20themselves
• Hero image source by Navigator84 / openverse, by-sa.

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